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| Frequently Asked Questions about Viticulture (Growing Grapes) |
| Before we get Started (About the FAQ): |
GENERAL |
| This is the FAQ created for readers of rec.crafts.winemaking (rcw) who might be interested in some, or all, aspects of viticulture. If you have any additions, deletions, corrections, comments, questions or the like, please direct them to rcw or to the Editor/Compiler at ZenKoan@hotmail.com |
ACADEMIC AND/OR PROFESSIONAL USE & ACCURACY: |
| In the
case of academic use, follow the guidelines set out at your
institution for referencing electronic texts, provided that my name,
Ed Goist, and email ID, ZenKoan@hotmail.com, are referenced as
Editor/Compiler. I suggest as title "Viticulture FAQ List for Usenet
Usegroup rec.crafts.winemaking". An essay on suggested referencing
guidelines is available at
http://clever.net/quinion/words/citation.htm or by email from
michael&quinion.demon.co.uk (&=@). I am not a viticulturalist, (Heck, I don't even play one on TV!) . I am simply a backyard grape grower who loves his hobby. As a result, this text is not guaranteed to be 100% accurate. Moreover; viticultural practices & conventions vary substantially from one location to another. Therefore, what works in one location might not work in another (even if these locations are only a few hundred yards [meters] apart). No liability or warranty, express or implied, is assumed by the Editor/Compiler or any contributors. This text covers the actual practices & procedures of growing grapes, as well as various approaches, techniques, and philosophies about viticulture. Whenever possible the author has attempted to promote consistency within the FAQ. Wherever conflicting opinions regarding an issue arose, the Editor/Compiler attempted to include the ideas of all of the various "sides" of the issue. The inclusion of multiple "sides" of an issue may seem confusing to some readers, but we feel that such an approach is necessary to good viticulture. If you want more information of a basic or advanced nature, regarding any of the issues addressed in this FAQ, it is strongly recommended that you contact grape growers in your proximate area, as well as your local or regional agricultural extension agent. Since viticulture is so "location specific", the advice of those in your proximate area is much more valuable than anything you will learn here. Moreover; we strongly recommend that you carefully peruse all of the sources listed in questions #1 & #2 of this FAQ. |
COPYWRITE NOTICE: |
| Copyright 1999/2000 by Ed Goist, Author, Editor
&Compiler, all rights reserved. This FAQ may be distributed to any USENET newsgroup, on-line service, BBS or any other means, electronic or physical (such as, but not limited to, floppy diskettes and printouts) as long as: A) it is either distributed in its entirety, or it is referenced if partially distributed. B) no fee is charged to anyone: I) downloading this file beyond nominal online fees, or ii) receiving the information beyond nominal format charges, C) it is not distributed for financial gain. To be included in commercial collections or compilations (except online services as allowed above), express permission from Ed Goist at ZenKoan@Hotmail.com is necessary. |
SOURCES: |
| 1.
Primary Sources: The vast majority of the information in this FAQ
represents the positions/practices & philosophies of the
Editor/Compiler as he has assembled them over time as a result of
primary sources (face- to-face conversations with grape growers).
Some, but not all, of the growers whose ideas have been drawn upon
include: Arnie Esterer (Markko Vineyard), Kent Glaus (Portage Hills
Winery), Doug Moorhead (Presque Isle Wine Cellars), Frank Kuchan
(Coffee Cake Vineyard), Greg Johns (Ohio State University [OSU]
Experimental Grape Farm), & Dr. Mike Ellis (Plant Pathology,
OSU, OARDC Wooster) & Dr. G. Stanley Howell (Horticulture, Mich.
St. Univ.) 2. Viticulture posting to the rec.crafts.winemaking newsgroup. 3. Viticulture questions & answers posted to the Viticulture Discussion List at viticulture@mail.orst.edu Note: To subscribe to this list please send "SUBscribe VITICULTURE firstname lastname" to LISTSERV@MAIL.ORST.EDU |
Finally, the Editor/Compiler of the list has attempted to list all of those whose ideas have directly contributed to this FAQ in the acknowledgments section at the end of the FAQ. Any omissions of contributors by the Editor/Compiler is purely unintentional. |
EDITING & SPELLING CONVENTIONS: |
| When
used, the word "I" is the contributor, not necessarily the editor.
When used, the Imperial "We" refers to the ideas of the
Editor/compiler. In general American spelling conventions have been
used. |
MEASUREMENT CONVENTIONS: |
| An
attempt has been made to include both American and metric
measurements. When a reference to a gallon is made, it will be
identified as an American gallon (USGallon), and its equivalence in
liters will also be noted. |
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| FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS ABOUT VITICULTURE: |
| V1:
Where can I find information about growing grapes on the internet?
V2: What books are recommended for the grape grower? V3: What is the life cycle of the grapevine? V4: How many vines will I need to grow in order to make X gallons of wine? V5: I'm thinking of planting vines. What are some of the things I should know about the prospective planting site? Why are these things important to know? V6: What is "Heat Summation", why is it important & how do I calculate my "heat index" or "heat summations units"? V7: What wine grapes are recommended for my area? V8: What is soil pH? What is the best soil pH for grapes? & How do I adjust my soil pH? V9: Can I grow vines from cuttings? If so, how? V10: Where can I get vinestock? V11: How do I plant my new vines? V12: How much water do newly planted & young (less than 3 years old) vines need? V13: How much water do mature vines (older than 3 years old) need and will they show distress when it is needed? V14: How much fertilizer should I use & when should I apply it?What type of fertilizer should I use? V15: How should I space my grapevines? V16: How should I orient my grapevine rows? V17: How should I build a trellis for a short (50' [15m]) row? V18: What are the different training systems for grapevines? V19: What is the Geneva Double Curtain? V20: Which training system should I use? V21: Also, what is the difference between a Cordon-Cane system when compared to an Umbrella Kniffen? V22: How should I prune my vine throughout its life? How many clusters should I allow to mature on my vines? When (during the year) should I prune? V23: How do I know if I have to much vegetative growth in relation to the number of clusters? V24: What are good rootstocks to use? V25: With a 2 trunk system do I leave the 2 canes that will grow this year as the trunks? V26: It's very confusing, all the pruning stuff shows the 2 trunks starting at the ground. I don't see how you can do that? V27: Are a few brown leaves on a grapevine is a sign of a problem? The rest of the vine seems fine. V28: I think that I have Black Rot. How can I know for sure? What should I do? V29: How much Manzate (or product X) do I need for 100 vines? V30: When should I begin spraying? V31: How do I keep deer & birds away? V32: What is a hybrid? V33: How can I tell if a grapevine is male, female or both? V34: Do the vine rows need to be kept weed free? Can I use a cover crop instead? V35: What is the best way to deal with Japanese Beetles? V36: I have grapes in my backyard which were planted by a previous owner of the property. How can I tell what type of grapes I have? V37: What is vine density & why is it important? What is better high or low vine density? V38: Something is eating my leaves! What should I do? V39: What types of insect control programs work well for grapevines? V40: What is a good fungicide program for grapes? V41: What is the approximate time interval between the blooming of a vine's flower clusters in Spring & the harvest of its grapes in Fall? V42: When (at what level of ripeness) should I harvest my grapes? V43: During what time of the day should wine grapes be harvested? V44: Its late in the growing season & I'm starting to lose a lot of leaves, but I would like my Brix to be a little higher. Will my sugars continue to increase even if the vine looses its leaves? V45: What are some of the words frequently use in viticulture? (GLOSSARY) |
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| QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS: |
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| V1. WHERE CAN I FIND INFORMATION ABOUT GROWING GRAPES ON THE INTERNET? | ||
| A: In
response to this question, we have chosen the following list of 24
sites which we feel combine to very thoroughly cover just about
every aspect of viticulture. We wanted to keep the number of sites
fairly low so that a person will be able to cover ALL of the
references fairly comprehensively, without spending a ridiculous
amount of time. Therefore: Here are the most comprehensive sites we know of, which, together cover just about the entire subject of viticulture. | ||
| 1. GOOD GENERAL REFERENCE PAGES: | ||
| -Clos Pepe Vineyard: | ||
| (http://www.clospepe.com/tour.html)- Wes Hagen's
Excellent viticultural "how-to" site, covering such topics as
planting, pruning, Bud Break, Flowering, and Shoot & Leaf
Removal. Excellent use of photos. | ||
-Rioja Alta!: | ||
| (http://www.riojalta.com/ra_book3.html)- 100 years of Rioja Alta viticulture. Outstanding site which outlines the vine's growth cycle as it occurs in Rioja, Spain. The timing of the various stages of vine development will be different in your area, based on climate. Overall, however; this is a remarkably detailed & informative site. (One of my personal favorites!) | ||
-West Virginia Grape Growing: | ||
| (http://www.wvu.edu/~agexten/hortcult/fruits/grograps.htm#Appendices)-Grape Growing in WVa.: EXCELLENT general information site. | ||
-Growing Grapes in Kentucky: | ||
| (http://www.ca.uky.edu/agc/pubs/id/id126/id126.htm)- Growing Grapes in Kentucky. Another EXCELLENT general reference. | ||
-Michigan Varieties: | ||
| (http://www.msue.msu.edu/msue/imp/mod03/03900039.html)-
Recommended varieties for the State of Michigan. | ||
-Growing Vinifera in NY: | ||
| (http://www.nysaes.cornell.edu/hort/faculty/pool/vinfvar/contents.html)- Growing Vinifera in New York State. | ||
-Dr. Bob Pool's Page: | ||
| (http://www.nysaes.cornell.edu/hort/faculty/pool/GrapePagesIndex.html)-
Another Geneva page. This one is Dr. Bob Pool's "Grape Pages".
Includes many useful links. In particular, see: "Terroir", Site
Selection, & Training Systems (also listed Below). | ||
-Northwest Berry & Grape Infonet: | ||
| (http://berrygrape.orst.edu/fruitgrowing/grapes/grapeproduction.htm)- The Northwest Berry & Grape info net. Very good info for all growers, but particularly good for growers in the NW. Excellent sections of Grow Tubes, grapevine fertilization & rootstocks. | ||
| 2.
TRAINING & PRUNING: | ||
| -Univ. of Missouri Ext. Guide to Pruning: | ||
| (http://muextension.missouri.edu/xplor/agguides/hort/g06090.htm) - _THE_ best guide to pruning on the internet. | ||
| -Bob Pool's Vine Training Page: | ||
| (http://www.nysaes.cornell.edu/hort/faculty/pool/train/trainandstocks.html) - One of the Geneva "Grape Pages" mentioned above. | ||
| 3. PEST MANAGEMENT & GRAPE DISEASES: | ||
| -UC Davis Pest Management: | ||
| (http://axp.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/selectnewpest.grapes.html) - The Pest Management page for the University of California at Davis (one of the Premiere Viticultural Schools in the World). | ||
| -Pest Management, Ohio State: | ||
| (http://www.ag.ohio-state.edu/~ohioline/b861/index.html) - Pest Management web site for Ohio St University. (Note: see Chapter 4 - Grapes). | ||
| -Ohio State Univ. Plant Diseases: | ||
| (http://www2.ag.ohio-state.edu/~ohioline/hyg-fact/3000/) - Another fine page from Ohio State University. This one is their Plant Disease Index. | ||
| -Chemical Index & Re-entry interval times: | ||
| (http://www-aes.tamu.edu/rei_list.htm) - A very important page for anyone who uses chemicals in the vineyard! It gives the common name/trade name for many chemicals & also lists the applicable vineyard reentry interval times for same. | ||
| 4. ORGANIC & "SUSTAINABLE" VITICULTURE: | ||
| -Organic Wines: | ||
| (http://www.ecowine.com/organic.htm) - A discussion of the concepts behind organic winemaking & viticulture. | ||
| -Making Viticulture Sustainable: | ||
| (http://www.reninet.com/catz/altern3.htm) - A nice overview of the concepts behind organic viticulture. | ||
| -Organic growers produce wines in Upper Columbia: | ||
| (http://www.goodfruit.com/archive/Nov-98/special2.html) - A fine article about an organic vineyard in upper Washington state. (Also offers a nice description of the Smart-Dyson training system). | ||
| 5. VINEYARD SUPPLIES & REFERENCES: | ||
| -Supplies, Nurseries, you name it, it's here!: | ||
| (http://www.agr.state.nc.us/markets/commodit/horticul/grape/supplies.htm) - Comprehensive listing of Vineyard supplies, nurseries & references. | ||
| -Cornell University Viticulture References: | ||
| (http://www.cce.cornell.edu/regional/finger-lakes-grape/references.html) - Very comprehensive listing of Viticultural References (books, mags & Journals, Nurseries, etc.) | ||
| 6. OTHER REFERENCE SITES: | ||
| -French Vineyards (aka "The Major Leagues"): | ||
| (http://www.doucefrance.com/vignoble/) - A very thorough guide to French Vineyards (WARNING: This site is very addictive!) | ||
| -Catalogue of Grape Varieties: | ||
| (http://www.dainet.de/genres/idb/vitis/vitis.htm) - The International Vitis Variety Catalogue. | ||
| -Winegrape Glossary: | ||
| (http://www.stratsplace.com/hawkins/wgg.html) - Anthony Hawkins' fine winegrape Glossary. |
| -Growing Zone Map for the US: |
| (http://www.growit.com/Zones/) - The best USDA zone map we have yet seen on the internet. This site allows the viewer to "zoom-in" on a specific state. |
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| V2: WHAT BOOKS ARE RECOMMENDED FOR THE GRAPE GROWER? | ||
| A: Start
by reading these three books, in the following order: 1. Otto, Stella: _The Backyard Berry Book_ - (A little known, minor classic) 2. Cox, Jeff: _From Vines to Wine_ - (Very comprehensive [also covering winemaking], excellent use of illustrations, just reprinted in new edition [1999]) 3. Wagner, Philip M. _Wine Growers Guide_ - A major classic on growing wine grapes written by the first American inducted into the French Wine Hall of Fame. Focus is on Eastern viticulture. Very well written. A Masterpiece. After these three, move on to: 4. J. Loenholdt, JR McGrew, et al _The American Wine Society Presents Growing Wine Grapes_, & 5. Albert Julius Winkler, et al _General Viticulture_ (Still the textbook of choice, [& reads like it!!]) - Winkler's focus is almost exclusively Californian, but he offers excellent sections on the growth cycles of the vine. |
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| V3: WHAT IS THE LIFE CYCLE OF THE GRAPEVINE? | ||
| A: Please see "Life Cycle" in our Viticulture Glossary. |
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| V4: HOW MANY VINES WILL I NEED TO GROW IN ORDER TO MAKE X GALLONS OF WINE? | ||
| A:
Grapevine yields which result in optimum wine quality will produce
about 10 - 13# (4.5-5.9kg) of grapes from a mature (age 3+) vine.
You can push this to about 20# (9kg) per vine if you want to
compromise quality. You will need about 15-16# (6.8-7.3kg) of grapes to make 1 USgallon (3.785L) of wine if you will be hand pressing. You will need about 13.5#-14.4# (6.1-6.5kg) of grapes to make 1 USgallon (3.785L) if using a basket press. Therefore; in general; each vine, when mature, will give you about 1 USgallon (3.785L) of wine. |
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| V5: I'M THINKING OF PLANTING VINES. WHAT ARE SOME OF THE THINGS I SHOULD KNOW ABOUT THE PROSPECTIVE PLANTING SITE? WHY ARE THESE THINGS IMPORTANT TO KNOW? | ||
| A: Just
about everything regarding the pre-planting & post-planting care
of wine grapes (especially Vinifera grapes) is contingent upon the
micro-climate of the site where the vines are being planted:
-What is your general climate? This is important because grapevines need a temperate climate. They need a climate which offers both a healthy growing season (with average temperatures above 50 F [10C]), and a "dormant period" of at least 60 consecutive days, during which the average temperature is comfortably below 50F (10C). This period is necessary to allow the vine to lapse into its natural period of dormancy (see Glossary). Additionally, it is beneficial to have a climate which avoids temperature extremes (of 100+F [38+C] or 0-F [-18-C]) -How long is your growing season (# of days with a daily mean ave. temp of 50F+ [10C])? This is critical because grapes need a growing season of from 130 - 200 days. Once you know the number of growing days for your site, you can choose a cultivar which will be able to appropriately ripen in your climate. For example, Foch needs a growing season of only about 140 days, while Cabernet Sauvignon needs a growing season of over 180 days. Finally; keep in mind that wine quality is maximized when a cultivar ripens its grapes near the end of the vineyard's growing season (with a period of about 2 weeks after harvest for hardening-off before the frosts). -What are you usual annual absolute low temperatures? This is very important because each cultivar has two "cold hardiness thresholds": one at which severe bud damage occurs & another at which the vine is likely to be killed to the soil. With Leon Millot, for example, severe bud damage is not likely until around -10F (-23C) & vinekill is not likely until lows hit around -20F (-29C), with Pinot Noir, on the other hand, severe bud damage will begin at -3F (-19C) & vinekill can occur at -10F (-23C). Therefore, a cold January night of -10F (-23C) would only reduce the number of live buds on a Leon Millot, but would very likely completely kill a Pinot Noir vine all the way to the ground (or worse). -How much annual precipitation do you get? The optimum amount of precipitation for grapevines is between 20 & 30 inches (51 - 76 cm) per year (with 25" [63cm] about optimum). Moreover; the timing of the precipitation is very important. Generally, it is preferable for most of the precipitation to occur during the vine's period of dormancy. Excessive precipitation during any active stage of the vine's life cycle (see Glossary) is undesirable, but it is particularly undesirable during the period of ripening between veraison (see Glossary) and harvest. -Is the site fairly sunny? Grapevines are sun worshipers of the first order. The more sunlight the better. Therefore, vines MUST be planted in full sun whenever possible. Moreover, it has been said that great wine grapes are always grown as far north (in the northern hemisphere) as they can ripen. This maxim refers to the extra sunlight afforded by extreme latitudes. As a point of reference, consider that all of the great winegrowing regions of the world receive from 1200 to 1800 sunshine hours throughout the 6 principal months of vine activity (April - September in the northern hemisphere & October - March in the souther hemisphere). -Is it fairly windy? Wind can be a double edged sword: non-excessive amounts of wind can aid in rapid drying of the canopy after a rain. This air circulation is very healthy for the vine as it is a protection against the many moisture-loving fungi which attack the vine. Too much wind, however, can severely bend or break shoots & canes and can even defoliate a young vine, thereby reducing its ability to produce necessary sugars. -What is the planting history of the site? Many viticulturalists believe that grapevine planting in the recent past (within 2 years) in a vineyard location can retard the growth of newly planted vines in the same location. -What is the Soil pH? Soil pH is important for two primary reasons: when attempting to grow vinifera in the acidic soils of the eastern US, it is very important to adjust the pH of the planting site to 6.5. Moreover; regardless of cultivar type, a vine can more efficiently utilize the minerals & nutrients in a soil if that soil has a pH of 6.5. -What is the Soil content for Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium, & Calcium? Although soil nutrients are not as critical for grapevines as they are for other plants, levels of both nitrogen & potassium should be checked & adjusted for new plantings. -What are the Soil texture & drainage characteristics? Grapevines like a range of soil textures, with loams being the most preferred. Moreover; as a general rule, all grapevines love deep, well drained soils. Finally, calcareous & slate soils have established reputations for producing outstanding wine grapes. |
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| V6: WHAT IS "HEAT SUMMATION", WHY IS IT IMPORTANT & HOW DO I CALCULATE MY "HEAT INDEX" OR "HEAT SUMMATIONS UNITS" (HSU)? | ||
| A: The
length of the growing season (as discussed above) is not the only
important measure of a potential site. Of equal importance is the
overall heat index which accumulates during the growing season.
Since the rate of metabolism & growth of a vine will be
generally faster under warmer conditions, it is not only necessary
for a vine to be planted in a site with an appropriately long
growing season, but the accumulation of heat throughout that season
must be enough to allow the vine to ripen. The "heat summation
units" for a site is obtained by totaling the number of degrees
above 50F (10C) for the entire growing season. It can be calculated (on the F scale) for your location as follows: 1. Contact the National Weather Service reporting station closest to your vineyard (it is probably at the nearest large airport). 2. Ask them for the average low & high temperature for each month (if you are really neurotic about this stuff [like me] you can get the info _by day_, but monthly figures will be accurate enough). 3. Calculate the average F temperature for each month: (Ave. Monthly temp = (ave high + ave low) / 2. 4. Subtract 50 from each month's average temp. 5. Disregard all "negative" months (with an ave. temp below 50F) 6. Now, multiply each month's rating by the number of days in that month. The result is that month's Heat Summation Rating. 7. Add all ratings together & you have your total. Example: June average high = 70F June average low = 52F June average = 61F ([70+52]/2) June Heat Summation = 330 ([61-50] X 30 days in June) Finally; to increase the accuracy of an estimation based on weather station data, you can adjust based on the difference in altitude between the weather station & your vineyard. This is done as follows: For every +100 feet of elevation, the Heat Summation Units decrease by approximately 70 for a season. For example, if your nearby weather reporting station experiences 3000 Heat Summation Units in a year and your vineyard is 200 feet higher, then your vineyard would have approximately 2860 Heat Summation Units (3000-[70 x 2]). Finally; you should definitely calculate for altitudinal variation if you live in a hilly or mountainous region. The weather station will be able to give you its altitude & you will be able to get the altitude of your vineyard from the USGS topo map of your area. FYI and reference, a system of Heat Summation Regions has been established for Viticulture. They are: Region -- HSUs ---- Common Regional Cultivars I --- 1700-2500 --- Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, White Riesling, Foch, most American types II -- 2501-3000 --- Chambourcin, Cabernet Sauv, Gamay, Seyval, Vidal Blanc III - 3001-3500 --- Barbera, Chenin Blanc, Zinfandel, Syrah IV - 3501-4000 --- Carignane, Nebbiolo, Muscat Canelli, table & raisin grapes. |
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| V7: WHAT WINE GRAPES ARE RECOMMENDED FOR MY AREA? | ||
| A: There
are hundreds of grape varieties grown successfully for wine
production around the World. The choice of which cultivar(s) to grow
is a very important decision which should be addressed well in
advance of ground breaking. While making this decision, one should
consider all of the site conditions outlined in V5 & V6 above
and, more importantly, one should consider the history of attempted
grape culture in his or her area. Be sure to talk about your
cultivar selection to any and all grapegrowers in your area, as well
as with your local and regional ag agents. This being said, however, please find below a listing of several cultivars which have a history of successful winegrowing culture. We have catagorized these cultivars for utilization using a modification of the Heat Summation Unit "Regional Designations" outlined above in V6. Moreover; we have also included an estimate of the average length of the "growing season" (see V.5) within each region: Notes: 1. (r) - red variety (w) - white variety (a) - American (h) -hybrid (v) -vinifera 2. Vinifera vines should be grafted onto phylloxera resistant rootstocks unless grown in very sandy (80+%) soil. American & hybrid vines can be grown on their own roots. (However; Chambourcin & Seyval Blanc will benefit from being grafted). Region Sub-I: HSU: <1700 Growing season: <130 days Cultivars: Espirit (wh), La Cross (wh), St. Croix (ra), St. Pepin (wh), Swenson Red (rh) Region IA: HSU: 1700-2150 Growing season 131-150 days Cultivars:Aurore (wh), Delaware (wa), Cayuga White (wh), Léon Millot (rh), Maréchal Foch (rh) Region IB: HSU: 2151-2600 Growing Season 151-170 days Cultivars: Chardonnay (wv), Niagara (wa), Seyval Blanc (wh), Vignoles (wh), White Riesling (wv), Vidal Blanc (wh), Baco Noir (rh), Chelois (rh), Concord (ra), Gamay Noir (rv), Pinot Noir (rv) Region II: HSU: 2601-3050 Growing Season 171-185 days Cultivars: Pinot Gris (wv), Pinot Blanc (wv), Sauvignon Blanc (wv), Semillon (wv), Chardonel (wh), Gewurztraminer (wv), Norton (ra), Limberger (rv), Pinot Meunier (rv), Cabernet Sauvignon (rv), Cabernet Franc (rv), Chambourcin (rh) Region III: HSU: 3051-3500 Growing season 186-215 days Cultivars: Chenin Blanc (wv), St. Emilion (wv), Roussanne (wv), Viognier (wv), Grenache (rv), Malbec (rv), Merlot (rv), Petite Sirah (rv), Sangiovese (rv), Zinfandel (rv), Syrah (rv), Barbera (rv) Region IV: HSU: 3501+ Growing season 216+ days Cultivars: Burger (wv), Colombard (wv), Malvasia Bianca (wv), Mission (rav), Nebbiolo (rv), Ruby Cabernet (rvh),Carignane (rv) |
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| V8: WHAT IS SOIL PH? WHAT IS THE BEST SOIL PH FOR GRAPES? & HOW DO I ADJUST MY SOIL PH? | ||
| A: The
pH of a soil is an indication whether the soil is acidic, neutral,
or alkaline. The pH scale runs from 1 to 14, with 1 to 6 being
acidic, 7 being neutral and 8 to 14 being alkaline. The scale is
logarithmic, which means that a pH value of 5.0, for example, is TEN
TIMES more acidic than a pH value of 6.0. Soil pH can be measured by using either a soil test kit or a pH meter. If using a pH meter, a representative sample of soil (taken from rooting depth) is combined with an equal volume of distilled water & a pH reading of the resulting slurry is taken with the meter. Different types of plants like different soil pHs. As a general rule, grapes (depending on variety) like neutral or slightly acidic soils. Additionally; it has been found that a soil will more readily release necessary minerals and nutrients if its pH is in the 6.5 to 7.0 range. We recommend the following soil pHs: -For native American varieties: pH 5.5 -For Interspecific hybrids & Vitis Vinifera: pH 6.5 * (* - vinifera varieties are not likely to thrive in the US northeast unless grown in soils with a pH of 6.5) How to lower soil pH: Ground sulfur or aluminum sulfate are the most effective materials for lowering soil pH. To lower pH 1 point (say from 7.5 to 6.5), add 2 Lbs. (.91kg) of sulfur or 5 Lbs. (2.28kg) of aluminum sulfate per 100 square feet (9.3 sq m) of vineyard area (There are 43,560 square feet in an acre). Be sure to work the material deeply into the soil. The optimum time to adjust soil pH is in the fall. If you can't add the material in the fall, add it as early as possible in the spring. However; sulfur & aluminum sulfate MUST be added in the fall if your are planning on planting new vines, as both of these materials are very phytotoxic. How to raise soil pH: Crushed limestone is the material of choice for raising soil pH. The amount to add is determined by the texture of the soil to be treated. As a general rule, sandy soils do not require as much limestone for pH adjustment as either loam or clay. Therefore, we recommend adding the following amounts of limestone to raise soil pH by 1 point (say from 5.5 to 6.5): Soil Texture --- Lbs (kg) of limestone to add per 100 sq. ft. (9.3 sq m) of vineyard Heavy Clay --- 8 (3.6) Clay --------- 7 (3.2) Clay/Loam ---- 6 (2.7) Loam --------- 5 (2.3) Sandy Loam --- 4 (1.8) Sand --------- 3 (1.4) Light Sand --- 2 (.91) As with sulfur or aluminum sulfate, ground limestone should be added in the fall before planting and worked very well into the soil. Finally, do not attempt to adjust soil pH by more than 1.5 points at a time, and be sure to periodically re-check the soil pH ever other year. |
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| V9: CAN I GROW VINES FROM CUTTINGS? IF SO, HOW? | ||
| A: Yes
-GENERAL INFORMATION: Hardwood cuttings are the most common & time honored method of propagation. All of the great vineyard regions of France & California were first planted using transported cuttings (France by the Roman Legions & California by the Catholic Missions). Cuttings can be made at any time after leaf drop in the fall until the sap starts to flow in the spring. If the cuttings are prepared in fall or early winter, there is a better chance of obtaining good callus formation which, as we will see, is critical to rapid root formation in the spring. As a general rule, take the cuttings when the parent vine is pruned. -SELECTION: Straight, vigorous, well-matured, disease-free, one-year-old canes (canes which fruited the past vintage) with well-developed buds should be chosen for cuttings. As a general rule, choose canes which had the best possible exposure to sunlight during the past growing season. The best cuttings are made from canes about pencil-size or slightly larger with four or five buds 2-3 inches apart. This makes an ideal completed cutting 10 or 14 inches long. In making the cuttings, I place a straight cut just below the lowest bud, and a slanted cut about one inch above the top bud so that the top can be easily identified and the bud will not dry out. When making your cuts to the parent cane be sure to use clean (as in sanitized with a 5% bleach solution), sharp, bypass style pruning shears. Also, make sure that your shears "cut clean" & do not crush the cane. Make sure that your cuttings have healthy nodes, as rooting will take place more readily near the nodes & on the surface of the flat bottom cut. -STORAGE: To store the cuttings until planting, tie them in bundles, with all of the tops at one end. Place the bundles in a black plastic or burlap bag into which you have placed either damp moss or sand. Leave the wrapped bundle a cool, dark place until you are ready to plant. You may also place the prepared bundles outdoors, under a mound of soil in a well-drained place. Firmly pack the earth around each bundle, and cover all the bundles with at least 6 inches of soil. If your soil has a clay texture, add some sand to the covering soil. PLANTING & CARE: For a small home vineyard planting which can easily be watered & fertilized throughout the spring, cuttings can be planted in their permanent location as soon as the last danger of frost has passed. This is done as follows: 1. After the last chance of a frost, prepare the planting sight by cultivating down to 12". 2. Make sure that the moss in the bundle bag is moist to the touch. 3. Place the bundle bag in an area where it will be warmed to around 80F (under a heating pad on low or on top of a fridge). Let sit for 2 weeks. After the 2 weeks the cuttings should be callused (showing the start of rooting material) at the base and at the lower nodes. 4. Once callused, plant cuttings in their permanent location, being as careful as possible not to chip-off any callused material. Cuttings should be planted with two nodes underground (for 4 node cuttings), or three nodes underground (for five node cuttings) & with two nodes above ground. The two growth buds for the first season will come from these nodes. The vine will "know" to grow roots from the underground nodes & to grow buds from the above ground nodes. 5. Water the cuttings every week until mid Summer. 6. Apply fish fertilizer (0-0-5), as directed, every 3 weeks until mid Summer. 7. The planting bed for the cuttings MUST be kept WEED FREE (_NO_ compromises here). By following this procedure, the above ground buds can show shoot growth of 12-15" in the first season. For more information see the following sites (also used as references for this posting): http://www.ca.uky.edu/agc/pubs/id/id126/id126.htm http://www.wvu.edu/~agexten/hortcult/fruits/grograps.htm#Obtainingtheplants To acquire cuttings see the following site: http://www.hevanet.com/lonrom/grapes.html |
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| V10. WHERE CAN I GET VINE STOCK? | ||
| A. For a
very thorough listing of grapevine nurseries, go to this site:
http://www.agr.state.nc.us/markets/commodit/horticul/grape/supplies.htm#nurseries |
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| V11. HOW DO I PLANT MY NEW VINES? | ||
| A.Begin
by preparing the vinestock & site as follows: -Try to time your nursery order so that you are ready to plant the vines as soon as they arrive. If this is impossible, and the vines arrive before the site is prepared, bury the unwrapped vines in 6"-8" (15-20cm) of soil or wet sand & be sure to keep them moist and out of direct sunlight until planting. When you are ready to plant, do the following: 1. Trim the roots of each vine back to about 6" (15cm). I hold the vine loosely in my fist with the base of the roots touching my thumb & with the shears in the other hand I trim the roots to about 2" (5cm) below my fist. We trim the roots because we believe that doing so stimulates both water uptake & vigorous early root growth in the new vine. NOTE: However; many growers advise against root trimming because they feel that it deprives the young vine of important, stored carbohydrates. (Because of the two distinct schools of thought regarding root trimming, you may wish to check with your nursery for their recommendation. They will know what has worked best with their particular stock in the past). 2. Now place the vines (roots trimmed or no) upright in a bucket of cool water and allow them to soak for 5 to 8 hours. (Note: Soak no more than 8 hours and keep the vinestock out of the hot sun for the duration of the soaking). 3. Prepare the site as follows: a. Dig a large hole which will completely accommodate the vine's rootsystem. b. Drive a 6' (1.8m) tomato stake into the rear of the hole so that it is buried 2' (61cm) deep. Make sure that the stake is both straight & sturdy as the vine will be trained to it throughout the first one or two years. 4. Take your bucket of soaking vines to the planting site & plant as follows: a. Place a small mound of topsoil in the planting hole and heel the roots into this mound, making sure that no roots become overlapped or tangled. b. Position the vinestock at the correct height by holding the vine with its first bud (or its graft union for a grafted vine) positioned at three fingers (index, middle & ring) width above ground level. c. While holding the vine at the correct planting depth with one hand, carefully fill the hole about 1/3 full with soil using your other hand, and then tamp the soil firmly. d. Repeat filling the hole in thirds until the vine if fully planted. 5. Now that the vine is planted, trim it back to 2 buds by pruning and/or nicking. Retain buds which are fat, healthy & well positioned (to grow into shoots along the stake). 6. Water the new vines thoroughly and be sure to keep the soil well watered throughout the first few growing seasons ( see V12 below) Final Note: Many growers apply an application of mycorrhizal fungi (see glossary) to the roots of the vinestock after soaking and just before planting. These growers believe that the symbiotic relationship which develops between these fungi and the roots of the vine is very beneficial to the overall health of the vine. |
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| V12: HOW MUCH WATER DO NEWLY PLANTED & YOUNG (LESS THAN 3 YEARS OLD) VINES NEED? | ||
| A. For vines up to two years old, water is VERY important. In great soil, with lots of water, your vines might grow 12-18" of roots by the end of the first year. That's not enough to get them through a dry or droughty first year. Once a week, 2-3 US gallons(7.6 - 11.4L) on each vine promotes VERY happy plants. You can't water deep with a hose, the water runs off. You can with overhead sprinkling but then you waste water, grow huge weeds, and promote fungal diseases on wet leaves. Go to the hardware/garden store & buy a simple drip kit and turn it on once or twice a week. Drip systems are the best way to water vines because they apply water only to the roots and they get the water as deep as possible. |
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| V13: HOW MUCH WATER DO MATURE VINES (OLDER THAN 3 YEARS OLD) NEED AND WILL THEY SHOW DISTRESS WHEN IT IS NEEDED? | ||
| A: Mature vines should only be given irrigation during extremely dry periods, & then only up to veraison (berry color change). Unfortunately; vine stress from lack of water is almost indistinguishable from other types of stress to the vine. As a general rule, when dealing with a fully mature vine, it is best to rule out all other possible causes of stress before focusing on drought. |
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| V14: HOW MUCH FERTILIZER SHOULD I USE & WHEN SHOULD I APPLY IT? WHAT TYPE OF FERTILIZER SHOULD I USE? | ||
| A:
Without the benefit of a soil test, the best general recommendation
is: -Apply 60# (27.2kg) actual N per acre (1.4# [.63kg] per 1000 square feet [93 square m]) (1.3 oz [36.8g] per vine) in the Spring , & -Apply 100# (45.4kg) actual K per acre (2.35# [1.06kg] per 1000 square feet [93 square m]) (2.2 oz [62.3g] per vine) at bloom. Nitrogen: The best form of N to use is Urea & it should be applied in a circle around each vine at the drip zone (about a 3' [1m] diameter). A good alternative to applying all 60# (27.2kg) of N in the form of Urea, is to apply part of the nitrogen in the form of manure. An application of manure not only provides the soil with needed nutrients, but it also enhances the overall organic profile of the soil. If you choose to do this, the recommended application rates are: -Apply 30# (13.6kg) actual N per acre (0.7# [318g] per 1000 square feet [93 square m]) (0.65 oz[18.4g] per vine) in the Spring. Apply the N in the form of Urea, & -Apply 5000# (227kg) manure per acre (115# [52.2kg] per 1000 square feet [93 square m]) (7# [3.2kg] per vine) in either the Spring or Fall. Potassium: The best form of K to use is Potash & it should be applied in a line, down the row, next to the trunks. Blended Fertilizer: If you do not want to deal with applying multiple fertilizing agents, you may want to use a commercial blended fertilizer. In this case, we recommend that you use about 6 oz. (170g) of 12-12-12 blended all-purpose fertilizer per vine, applied in the early Spring. The blended fertilizer has the benefit of providing the vines with both nitrogen (which is critical for the above ground growth) & potassium (which is critical for root development). Again; apply the fertilizer by ringing it around each vine at the "drip zone" (about a 3' [1m]diameter). Finally; if the vines have a history of showing nutrient deficiency symptoms, I would make sure that the soil pH is adjusted to 6.5 & that the vines are kept WEED FREE in about a 2.5' (.76m) radius of the trunks. Please note that acidic soil pH & poor weed control are the primary reasons for grape vine nutrient deficiency. These factors are much more important than the actual nutrient profile of the soil. |
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| V15: HOW SHOULD I SPACE MY GRAPEVINES? | ||
| A: There
are many different spacing which have been successful under a
variety of conditions. As a general rule, we recommend a spacing of
6 feet (1.8m) between vines in the row and 10 feet (3m) between
rows. This will give you 726 vines per acre. You may choose to deviate from our recommended vine spacing under the following conditions: -Growing extremely vigorous cultivars (such as Baco Noir or Leon Millot): use 8 foot ( 2.4m) vine spacing (for 545 vines per acre) -Growing vines in a very warm/hot climate &/or in very dry soils: use 10 foot (3m) vine spacing (for 436 vines per acre) -Growing vinifera in a very cold, moist climate: use 4 foot (1.2m) vine spacing (for 1089 vines per acre) |
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| V16: HOW SHOULD I ORIENT MY GRAPEVINE ROWS? | ||
| A: The
general answer is: -Orient your rows N - S in the northern hemisphere if you want to maximize the sun exposure & heat summation available to your canopy. You would want to do this if you are growing a variety which you expect to ripen near the end of your growing season. -Orient your rows E - W in the northern hemisphere if you want to minimize the sun exposure & heat summation available to your canopy. You would want to do this if you are in a very hot area, or if you are growing a variety which will ripen very early in your season. However; other factors might be in effect in your microclimate which will influence your choice of row orientation. Specifically, if you have a southward facing exposure (like the south wall of a house, or a wall of high trees adjacent to your field) it might be best to orient your rows E - W parallel to the wall if you want to maximize heat summation. Additionally; in much of the Midwest & the East air drainage will be critical to fungus control, so growers in these regions might want to orient their rows so that the prevailing winds (usually out of the west in North America) run down the rows. Please note that this will be more of a concern, & should therefore be strongly considered, if you will be planting a cultivar which is highly susceptible to fungus infestation (as in any vitis Vinifera). Finally; try to find a grape grower in your proximate area. Their suggestions will be infinitely more valuable than ours. |
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| V17: HOW SHOULD I BUILD A TRELLIS FOR A SHORT (50' [15M]) ROW? | ||
| A: You
should be able to get away with using two 4X4s, WELL ANCHORED, as
your end posts & 2 additional line posts (either metal fence
posts or 3X3 landscaping posts will do fine). 1. Begin by installing your end posts: Bury your end posts at least 2' (0.6m) deep at the end of each row and at a slight angle away from the row. The top of each end post should be anchor-wired to earth augers which are screwed deeply into the soil about 50" [1.3m] beyond the point where the end post is buried into the soil. The end post and the earth anchor are attached to each other with a loop of 11 gauge galvanized wire which threads through the eye on the earth auger and is looped around, and stapled to, the top of the end post. The anchor wire loop is made by connecting a single piece of wire to itself at the ends. This can be accomplished by twisting the two ends of the wire into two interconnected loops or links. At this point, leave both of the anchor wire assemblies suspended taunt, but not tight, as a double strand of wire between the top of the end post and the eye of the earth auger. 2. Next; install the two line posts of the row: (Hint: It is very helpful to attach a piece of yarn or thread between the two end posts to use as guides or markers when installing the line posts. Doing so will keep your row straight.) One post should be located 13’ (4m) from end post “A” & the other line post should be located 19’ (5.8m) from end post “B”. When being installed, the line posts should be buried at least 18" (46cm) deep and be perfectly perpendicular to the soil. In this end post/line post scenario (using our standard 6' [1.8m] vine spacing) your trellis configuration and row layout would be: (Prevailing Wind ->) earth anchor…end post…2 vines…line post…3 vines…line post…3 vines…end post…earth anchor As you can see, the section of the trellis with the most reinforcement (with the 2 vines between posts) should be the end with the greatest potential for exposure to wind pressure. 3. Now that the posts are up its time to string your wires: -Determining the number & height of the trellis wires: We recommend a three wire appliance for virtually all training systems. With this system, the wires should be positioned at 3' (.91m), 4.5' (1.4m), and 6' (1.8m). However; if one is training to a high wire system with downward trained shoots (hybrids or American varieties), one could get away with using a two wire appliance, with the wires at 4.5' (1.4m) and 6' (1.8m). 4. Install the lowest trellis wire as follows: Using 11 gauge wire, attach the end of your wire coil (at the desired height) to one of the end posts. This is done by twisting the wire around the post 2 – 3 times & then twisting it around itself. After you have pulled it as tight as you can with a breaker bar or trellis tool (see below) secure it to the end post tightly with staples. -Next, uncoil the wire down the row & staple it LOOSELY to each of the line posts at the CORRECT HEIGHT. -Finally; when you have threaded through both line posts & have gotten to the other end post, it is time to clip the wire from the coil. To do this properly, clip off just enough extra wire to be able to properly secure the wire line to the post (with a 4X4 end post 36” of extra wire is enough). Secure the wire to this end post exactly as you secured it to the other end post. 5. Install the second trellis wire exactly as you installed the first, with one exception: Attach the second wire loosely to the side of the line posts which is opposite to the side to which the first wire was attached. (This slight three dimensional character to the trellis appliance will give you more options when it comes to canopy management). 6. Finally; install the top wire in the same manner as the other two. As you may have guessed, the third wire should be attached loosely to the SAME side of the line posts as the first wire. 7. Now that the wires are all attached, it is time to tighten them: This can be done quite easily by tightening your end-post anchor wires. These anchor wires are tightened by simply twisting the two strands of each anchor wire around themselves with a 2X4. This process, in turn, creates tightening tension which pulls the end-posts outward thereby tightening all of the trellis wires. When the desired tension level is achieved, the 2X4 can be jammed against the end post and left in position as a kind of “tension tool”. Moreover, this twisting process can be easily reversed (by un-jamming the 2X4 and loosening the strands) so that the tension on the wires can be relaxed over the winter. 8. A few final notes: -Remember; well anchored end posts carry virtually ALL of the weight force of the trellis appliance. In a well constructed trellis, the line posts are there simply to prevent wire sagging. -We have recommended 11 gauge galvanized wire for each trellis wire & for the end-post anchoring wires. 11 gauge is sturdy enough & it is fairly easy to manipulate (even with bare hands). -Be sure to pick-up the Crescent model 1936-10"-254mm fence building tool. This single tool has everything you will need for stringing & tightening the trellis wires. This handy tool is the “Swiss Army Knife of Trellis Building”. -If you would like to use tightening systems more sophisticated than those outlined here, you can “splurge” and pick-up either some "daisy wheels" ($$) or "Wirevises" ($) to tighten the wires. |
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| V18: WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT TRAINING SYSTEMS FOR GRAPEVINES? | ||
| A:
Although there are countless ways to train a vine, all of the common
systems used to train wine cultivars can be catagorized using three
criteria: 1. The Vine's Superstructure: This is the term we will use to describe the vine's configuration of perennial wood (see glossary) and to describe how and where the fruiting wood is trained to emanate from the perennial wood. Examples of different types of superstructures include: -a low head (a short trunk) -a high head (a tall trunk) -a low cordon (a low horizontal extension of a trunk) -a high cordon (a high horizontal extension of a trunk) 2. The length of the fruiting wood: This describes the length (in nodes [see glossary]) to which the fruiting wood is pruned. Examples include: -short spurs (1-2 nodes) -spurs (3 nodes) -canes (4-8 nodes) -long canes (9+ nodes) 3. The Orientation and Shape of the Fruiting Wood, and the Positioning of the growing Shoots: -The orientation tells us whether the spurs/canes are trained horizontally, upward or downward. -The shape of the fruiting wood is only applicable to long canes and it can be either straight or bowed. -The positioning of the growing shoots is usually either "vertically positioned" (see vertical shoot positioning in the glossary) or "free positioned" (allowed to grow "at will", but still diligently attached to the trellis wires). Now, using the above criteria let's look at some of the common training systems for winegrape cultivars: Head Systems: The Guyot - The traditional example of a head/cane system, using a low head with long, horizontal, straight canes. The fruiting shoots are vertically positioned (qv). The major advantage of this system is ease of pruning. At pruning, a single cut is made on each of the two canes just outside of the first node on the cane, thereby facilitating the removal of all pruned wood. The long, remaining shoot is then horizontally positioned along the low trellis wire to become next year's fruiting cane. In short; an upwards grown, vertically positioned shoot becomes a horizontally positioned cane. The major system disadvantage of the Guyot system is its very low amount of perennial wood. The Kniffin System - The ubiquitous system for native American vines in the Eastern US. This system is basically a high-head, multiple Guyot system (with two or more pairs of horizontally oriented canes). Spurs are also often used to facilitate renewal of each cane. Major advantages are ease of pruning & trellis efficiency. Major disadvantage is excessive vigor and difficult canopy management. (Have you ever seen a Concord vineyard...where's my machete!) Other common examples of Head Systems include: Pendelbogen - A low head, Guyot system utilizing very long, severely arched canes & vertical shoot positioning. Umbrella Kniffin - A high head system utilizing arched canes. Keuka High Renewal - A low head system with four straight canes. Two of which are horizontal along the bottom trellis wire and two of which are angled (at about 60 deg) and attached to the top wire. Scott Henry - A mid-wire Guyot system utilizing four horizontal canes (two upper and two lower). The shoots from the two upper canes are trained upward while the shoots from the two lower canes are trained downward. Cordon Systems: High Wire Cordon Systems: Horizontal trunk extensions are trained along the top trellis wire. These extensions can either go in a single direction away from the vertical trunk (unilateral cordons) , or in both directions (like a "T") away from the vertical trunk (bilateral cordons). The fruiting wood hangs downward from the cordons and it can be either as few long canes or many short spurs. Examples of high cordon systems are the: Hudson River Umbrella - A high wire, bilateral cordon with four, long, downward pointed fruiting canes. (Very common in the eastern US with hybrids). The Single Curtain - A high wire, unilateral cordon with many, short, downward pointed fruiting spurs. The High Sylvoz - A high wire, bilateral cordon with downward pointed fruiting canes and upward pointed renewal spurs. Low Wire Cordon Systems: Horizontal trunk extensions are trained along the lowest trellis wire. These extensions can either go in a single direction away from the vertical trunk (unilateral cordons), or in both directions (like a very short "T") away from the vertical trunk (bilateral cordons). The fruiting wood points upward from the cordons and it can be either as few long canes or many short spurs. Examples of low cordon systems are: The Low Bilateral Cordon - A low wire bilateral cordon system with long, upward pointing canes. The Candelabra System (named by Editor) - A low wire bilateral cordon system with several short, upward pointing canes. (Very common with cold tender vinifera in the eastern US) The Chatauqua - A low wire bilateral cordon system with a combination of upward pointing fruiting canes and upward pointing renewal spurs. |
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| V19: WHAT IS THE GENEVA DOUBLE CURTAIN? | ||
| A: The
Geneva Double Curtain (GDC) requires a 3-dimensional trellis
appliance (each post is a "T" and the "top wire" is really two
parallel wires which run down the row at the two ends of the top of
the "T"). Therefore; the vines can be "cordoned out" on either of
the 2 wires. This trellis appliance requires extra hardware, labor
& maintenance. What is usually done in a GDC, is that the vines are trained in an alternating fashion, with the cordons of vine one on the left top wire, the cordons of vine two on the right top wire, etc, etc.. alternating all down the row (all odd numbered vines in the row are trained to the left top wire, while all even numbered vines in the row are trained to the right top wire). Therefore; in the GDC the vines are trained to a high-wire bilateral cordon which has very long cordons that are pruned to several short canes. Note that in this system, the grower can have cordons longer that the vine spacing width because the cordons can alternately be trained to different wires. Many recent studies show that the quality of the fruit is directly associated with both the amount of perennial wood on the vine & the proximity of the fruiting buds to perennial wood. If these findings are correct, the GDC would really maximize the fruit quality because the vine grows lots of permanent wood & all of the fruiting buds are within 5 nodes of that wood. |
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| V20: WHICH TRAINING SYSTEM SHOULD I USE? | ||
| (Special
acknowledgments here to Dr. Bob Pool & Dr. G.S. Howell) A: Because we feel that maximizing the volume of perennial wood on a vine is very important to both fruit and wine quality, we recommend that growers choose a system based on the following criteria: 1. Choose a cordon system whenever possible. Such a system may be precluded by a cultivar's lack of winter hardiness for a particular growing site. 2. If a head system must be used due to winter hardiness issues, always utilize multiple trunks (maybe even a separate trunk for each cane!). Such a system will maximize the volume of perennial wood on the vine. Moreover, the multiple trunks will enhance the winter hardiness of the vine. 3. Choose a high wire system if your cultivar has a recumbent (downward) growth pattern (like most American & Hybrids) and a mid or low wire system if your cultivar has a procumbent (or upward) growth pattern. Therefore; we feel that the following training systems are optimum systems for various cultivars in various growing conditions: Native American (high production) - Four Cane Kniffin Native American (low production) - High wire cordon/long canes Cold Hardy Hybrids - Hudson River Umbrella, Geneva Double Curtain Hybrids tender for the site (Chambourcin) - Mid-wire cordon, cane or spur training Vinifera hardy for site - "Candelabra" (mid-wire cordon with spurs). Vinifera tender for the site - multiple trunk Guyot, Keuka High Renewal, or a Pendlebogan system with very long canes (such a system would allow for the interment of one or more canes over the winter). |
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| V21: ALSO, WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A CORDON-CANE SYSTEM WHEN COMPARED TO AN UMBRELLA KNIFFIN? | ||
| A: A
cordon-cane system is any system which utilizes fruiting canes
emanating from perennial wood. Examples include: the HRU, the GDC,
the low wire cordon (Uni & bi lateral) & the vertical cordon
(often used with arbors). Any kniffin system utilizes fruiting canes which emanate directly from the head of the vine. In the Umbrella Kniffin, long canes project from the head like the fingers on a hand. Examples of "kniffin-type" systems include: The classic 4 cane kniffin (lots of American grapes are trained to this), the Guyot system (used extensively in Europe), & the Scott Henry system. These systems are very easy to establish & prune. Basically, the strongest, best positioned (low bud originating ) fruit bearing shoot from this year's growth is kept to become the fruiting cane for next season. All the rest of the shoots from this year's fruiting cane are pruned off. Additionally; vines trained to many of these "head" systems can be grown without a trellis appliance. A final note regarding "Kniffin-like" systems is that they work best with varieties which naturally have an "upward" growing tendency (like vinifera) & that they do not retain much perennial wood. As a result of not requiring much permanent wood, these systems can be very effectively winterized. Often the entire head & all fruiting canes can be buried. However; due to having less perennial wood, the early harvests (say the first 5 years) from these vines may have a slight reduction in fruit quality. As always, there are compromises & decisions to be made... |
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| V22: HOW SHOULD I PRUNE MY VINE THROUGHOUT ITS LIFE? HOW MANY CLUSTERS SHOULD I ALLOW TO MATURE ON MY VINES? WHEN (DURING THE YEAR) SHOULD I PRUNE? | ||
| A:
Pruning is simply the removal of portions of the vine for the
purpose of maintaining the size & productivity of the vine. The
size and productivity is maintained by ensuring that the vine
retains a proper number of fruiting buds. The following is a long term pruning plan for the home grower: Year 1: Allow two buds to grow into shoots. Remove any inflorescences (unfertilized flower clusters) which appear. Year 2: Harvest either 0, 1 or 2 clusters as follows: 1. Remove buds at pruning to 5. Allow these to grow into shoots. (Note: if you live in an area susceptible to winterkill, you can leave twice the desired number of buds at pruning time & then thin to the desired number after the last chance of frost) 2. Many viticultural sources recommend the removal of all inflorescences during year 2 (just like in year 1). Generally, removing all fruit in year 2 will focus the vine's growth on the roots, trunk & canes. It is never harmful to defruit a year 2 vine. 3. However; if you do have very healthy growth in year 1 & you want some fruit (to verify variety) you can safely plan on doing the following: 4. Allow either 1 or 2 clusters per vine to mature. Choose the strongest, best positioned cluster(s) as follows: a. Allow 1 basal cluster (one closest to the cane/spur) to mature if you are growing a large clustered variety like Chambourcin. Select the basal cluster on the strongest shoot. b. Allow 2 basal clusters to mature if you are growing a small (Baco Noir) or medium (Vidal) clustered variety. Select a basal cluster on each of the two strongest shoots. 5. Be sure that your year 2 vine maintains very healthy shoot & leaf growth throughout the vintage. At the first sign of vine stress (leaf discoloration - usually yellowing) remove the cluster(s) immediately. Year 3 (assuming good vine health): Harvest either 10 or 20 clusters as follows: 1. Prune to 20 buds using your chosen training system. 2. Before bloom, thin inflorescences to 2 per shoot (for a total of 40). The basal inflorescences (the ones closest to the cane/spur) are usually the best to keep. This thinning of inflorescences will greatly improve berry set. 3. A week to 10 days after berry set, choose & retain the healthiest, best positioned clusters as follows: -On large clustered varieties allow 10 clusters to mature. -On small & medium clustered varieties allow 20 clusters to mature. Year 4 & onward (assuming good vine health): Harvest a "full crop" as follows: 1. Prune to 40 buds (or use balanced pruning) 2. Before bloom, thin inflorescences (unfertilized flower clusters) to 2 per shoot (for a total of 80). The basal inflorescences (the ones closest to the cane/spur) are usually the best to keep. This thinning of inflorescences will greatly improve berry set. 3. A week to 10 days after berry set, choose & retain the healthiest, best positioned clusters as follows: Large clustered varieties: retain 13 clusters. Medium clustered varieties: retain 26 clusters. Small clustered varieties: retain 52 clusters. Notes: -Examples of cluster sizes: Small (ave. 4 oz [113g] per cluster): Foch, Leon Millot, Baco Noir, Riesling, Cabernet Franc, Pinot Noir Medium: (ave. 8 oz [227g] per cluster): Vidal, Chancellor, Chelois, Aurora, Merlot, Chardonnay, Semillon, Sauvignon Blanc, Chenin Blanc Large (ave. 1 Lbs [454g] per cluster): Seyval, Villard, Chambourcin, Cabernet Sauvignon, Syrah -As with _EVERYTHING_ in viticulture, these guidelines are not absolute. Be prepared to adjust based on such factors as : sight vigor, weather, pest pressure, clonal variations in cluster weight, training system variables, etc. -This system of triple pruning (buds, inflorescences & clusters) is very labor intensive, but it will produce superior fruit & it is one way for the home grower to take advantage of the smaller scale (compared to commercial growers) of his or her planting. -The cluster thinning recommended above will produce about 13 Lbs. (6kg) of fruit per mature vine. This is about 4.7 tons per acre, and also conveniently translate into about 1 gallon of must per vine! -If growing a variety which ripens very late for your growing season, you may need to reduce the crop by an additional 10%. Also; if growing a late ripening variety, be sure to remove enough leaves to give your fruiting zone good sunlight exposure. Finally, regarding the timing of your pruning, if your vines are being grown in a cool climate, the vines should be pruned in the Spring, around St Patrick's Day (mid-March in the N. hemisphere, mid- September in the S. hemisphere). This is important in a cool climate for 3 main reasons: 1. Cold hardy vines will continue hardening-off (a type of ripening which occurs during dormancy) well into the late Fall. This hardening-off is important to the long term health of the vine. 2. An unpruned vine has much more bio-mass than a pruned vine. This increased bio-mass considerably improves the winter hardiness of the unpruned vine. 3. Waiting until the Spring to prune will give you an opportunity to very easily tell which buds made it through the winter. As a result, you can be sure that the buds you keep are alive & well. On the other hand, in a very hot climate it is best to prune shortly (2 to 3 weeks) after leaf-fall in the Autumn, so the vine can be encouraged to enter dormancy. |
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| V23: HOW DO I KNOW IF I HAVE TOO MUCH VEGETATIVE GROWTH IN RELATION TO THE NUMBER OF CLUSTERS? SHOULD I REMOVE SOME LEAVES? | ||
| A: It's
very hard to say without knowing the history of the vines. If you
have good air drainage, good light penetration into the canopy,
& the maturity times of your varieties comfortably fit into the
length of your growing season, then there is no reason to remove any
leaves. Remember, the leaves are the primary engines of
photosynthesis for the vine. Also, many folks believe that the
leaves are critically important to the development of the primordial
buds which will produce _next_ year's fruiting shoots.
Moreover; overall fruit maturity and quality will be retarded and/or reduced if the shoots contain too little exposed leaf area for the developing clusters. In general, an exposed leaf area of less than 10 square cm per gram of fruit is considered inadequate (Note: Depending upon the size of a cultivar's leaves & clusters, 10 square cm of leaf area per gram of fruit is roughly equal to 8 - 12 leaves per cluster). However; if you are growing red varieties which mature on the cusp of your growing season & color & fruit ripeness have been problems in the past, then you might want to consider removing some of the basal leaves (the leaves between the cordon or cane & the first cluster) in order to get the fruit more exposed to sunlight. But remember, Leaf removal is a trade-off: Judicious removal of some of the leaves which are shading the clusters can enhance the quality of this year's crop. However, excessive leaf removal will almost certainly compromise the development of the buds which will produce next year's fruiting shoots. Finally; judicious leaf removal involves removing only those leaves which are shading the vine's fruiting zone. Remember; the objective of smart leaf removal is to expose the developing clusters to as much sunlight as possible by removing as few leaves as possible. |
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| V24: WHAT ARE GOOD ROOTSTOCKS TO USE? | ||
| A:
Rootstock technology has greatly evolved over the past 50 years. As
a result, the following rootstocks all perform well under a variety
of circumstances. (For a specific recommendation it is advised that
the grower consult the nursery providing the vine). In general; all of the following rootstocks perform well under a variety of circumstances: C-3309 - (Reduces vigor & can enhance winter hardiness due to early ripening. Well adapted to wet soils.) SO4 - (Does well in shallow, poorly drained, wet soils. Offers good resistance to nematodes as well as drought.) 101-14 MGT - (Well adapted to wet soils.) 5C - (Well adapted to clay soils, offers very good resistance to nematodes.) 1616E - (Exceptionally resistant to drought.) 18-815 - (aka 1899 Castel -very little research available.) 5BB - (Well adapted to wet soils, low relative vigor and above average resistance to nematodes.) Finally; for a more thorough description of the common grapevine rootstocks & their performance under various conditions, please see: - _Rootstocks for Grapevines_ by D.P. Pongracz (Pub 1985).( This book is currently out of print, but many large municipal & University libraries have a copy.) & the web site: http://www.orst.edu/dept/infonet/guides/grapes/phyrtsk.htm |
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| V25: WITH A 2 TRUNK SYSTEM DO I LEAVE THE 2 CANES THAT WILL GROW THIS YEAR AS THE TRUNKS? | ||
| A: You
can; but you don't need to... If the canes are both strong, you can keep them, head them off at the trellis wire at pruning time, & train them as 2 trunks. However; in the other extreme, if they are both weak; you can prune one completely off & prune the other (the stronger of the 2) down to 2 buds & take your chances with growing 2 _Completely New Canes_ next season. These 2 new canes will become your trunks. What usually happens, however; is something in between...One cane will make the wire (and then some) and can become a trunk, while the other will make it just about a foot or so up the stake. This "runt" cane (called "avorton" by the French) should be pruned back to green wood & the top bud retained to start a new cane (which will be trained as a trunk). In this situation, the trunk will be made of wood from 2 sequential growing seasons. When pruning a runt cane to green wood in the Spring, you start at the end and prune just above the 1st bud down, if the wood is green around the pith, stop...If the wood around the pith is brown, prune just above the 2nd bud down, if the wood around that pith is green, stop...etc...etc... Clearly, this is where the art of viticulture comes into play...Each vine, each cane, each bud will need to be handled based on its particular situation & upon your "gut feel". (As you can see, "Wine Growing" is as much of an art & is based as much on instinct & "gut feel" as "Wine Making"!) |
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| V26: IT'S VERY CONFUSING, ALL THE PRUNING STUFF SHOWS THE 2 TRUNKS STARTING AT THE GROUND. I DON'T SEE HOW YOU CAN DO THAT? | ||
| Remember; not only will your regular trunks have low
buds which can become new trunks, but the "Mother Trunk" will
develop basal buds each year which you can either nick-off or retain
& grow as "spare parts". >Do you mound up the dirt next year to make them trunks? ... No. The new trunks develop from buds on existing wood above the soil level. >...or do vines have a real trunk (the part right above the roots) ... Yes. We'll call this the "Mother Trunk"... >with 2 sub-trunks( the 2 1 year-old canes)? Yes, "sub-trunk" is excellent terminology, but they will only be composed of 1 year old wood in the vine's second year! Thereafter, they will become much woodier & will develop fewer buds, none of which will produce fruiting canes. They will become, in effect, a part of the vine's perennial wood. >If so wouldn't you still have a single point of failure if the main trunk is damaged? Yes. But...The "Mother Trunk", being so thick & close to the soil line is much more resistant to the cold damage than the sub-trunks (particularly if it is "hilled-up" with soil). |
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| V27: ARE A FEW BROWN LEAVES ON A GRAPEVINE IS A SIGN OF A PROBLEM? THE REST OF THE VINE SEEMS FINE. | ||
| A: I
hate to give you this answer, but "maybe yes...maybe no"..
The browning could mean just about anything. Here are some possible causes which come to mind: -Natural, uneven aging (often caused by excessive shading in canopy) -Herbicide (especially 2,4-D) drift (this can affect a vine from _miles_ away) -Black Rot (if browning appears in spots on the leaf) -Phomopsis Cane & Leaf Spot (if browning includes black splotches & leaf lesions) -Too much nitrogen (often turns into burnt leaf margins) -Too little nitrogen (often appears on the oldest leaves of a shoot) -Too little potassium (usually black leaves, appears most often on mid-shoot leaves) -Drought stress. Our recommendation would be to remove the browning leaves & keep an eye on the vine. Do not over-react. Unless the browning begins to rapidly spread, it will probably not adversely affect the vine over the long haul. Vines are pretty tough critters. Finally; be sure to provide a 2-3 foot radius "weed-free zone" under the vines & to stay on top of your fungicide program. |
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| V28: I THINK THAT I HAVE BLACK ROT. HOW CAN I KNOW FOR SURE? WHAT SHOULD I DO? | ||
| A: First
off, it should be stressed that proper diagnosis is impossible
without first seeing the vine. If you really want to verify that you
have a Black Rot (BR) infection, you should take a sample to a good
plant pathologist in your area. This being said however; here are some facts regarding Black Rot which might help you to either confirm or denounce your suspicions, and help you to deal with the problem if you do have Black Rot: GENERAL INFORMATION -The Black Rot fungus is a major problem in the US, east of the Mississippi. If you live in the East & have a highly susceptible cultivar, there is a good chance that you either have had, now have, or will have, BR. Some of the more notoriously susceptible cultivars are: Aurore, Baco Noir, Catawba, Chambourcin, Concord, Dutchess, Niagara, Seyval & _ALL_ vinifera (with Merlot being slightly less susceptible). -Only immature tissue is susceptible to the infection: a. Leaves are susceptible to BR for about 10 days after they open. Therefore, if you have BR, you should see more leaf spots on the younger leaves. b. Berries are susceptible until veraison. -Good News: berries become immune to the effects of the fungus when their sugar levels reach ~7% (after veraison) IDENTIFICATION: -The leaf infection spots start off yellow & progress into buckshot sized brown spots with irregular margins on the leaf tissue. -If you have leaf BR & if you look at the spots under a magnifying glass, you will see very small (pinhead sized) black circular dots arranged in a ring pattern just inside the margin of the spot. If you see this ring of black dots you most certainly have BR. -On berries, BR begins as a grayish blotch on the berry, progresses to a mass infestation of the pinhead sized black circular dots & finally turns the entire berry into a desiccated mummy. CAUSATION: -The BR fungus thrives in high humidity & can take hold of the vines only when the young, green tissue is subject to extended periods of wetness. The green tissue is most susceptible between 75F - 80F. Within this temp range infection can occur if the green tissue of the vine remains wet for as little as 6.5 hrs. -The BR fungus overwinters in lesions on the canes, tendrils, stems & berry mummies. The presence of a large number of lesions on last year's wood would be a strong indicator that the fungus has had a place to survive the winter. PREVENTION: -Excellent air drainage, windy conditions, sunny planting locations (and of course) good weed control in the vineyard are all excellent preventative measures. These things combine to enable the plants to dry more quickly. -The two most effective means of cultural prevention include: a. Good Vineyard Sanitation. Destroy & Remove all infected leaves, canes & mummies. The more infected material which is allowed to remain in the vineyard overwinter, the higher the likelihood of a BR infection during the next vintage. b. Placement of vines. The BR fungus thrives on wild grapevines & since the fungus inoculum can be transported by the wind, vines should never be planted downwind from a large population of wild grapevines (especially vitis Riparia). -Chemical Prevention (Be sure to follow all labeling instructions & warnings before spraying any chemicals. Be sure to wear proper safety equipment when operating sprayers.): Mancozeb 80WP is the fungicide of choice, applied at the following rates: Bud Break to Shatter: 3Lbs per acre (2Tbsp per USGal [3.785L]) Shatter to Veraison: 4 Lbs per acre (8 tsp. per USGal [3.785L}) -Begin application of preventative fungicides when shoots are .5" (1 cm) long & apply throughout the season every 7 - 14 days. If it rains within 5 days after a spray, be sure to spray the next day & adjust your schedule accordingly. -Post Infection Eradication: Bayleton WP ($$$) 4oz per acre (.5 tsp. per USGal) (Be sure to consult a plant pathologist before implementing an eradication program) MORE INFORMATION: For more info on Black Rot please see: http://www2.ag.ohio-state.edu/~ohioline/hyg-fact/3000/3004.html |
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| V29: HOW MUCH MANZATE (OR PRODUCT X) DO I NEED FOR 100 VINES? | ||
| A:
Manzate 200 is a trade name for Mancozeb 80 WP (wettable powder).
Mancozeb 80WP is a very effective fungicide for the prevention of
Black Rot (BR), Phomopsis cane & leaf spot (PCLS) & Downy
Mildew (DM). The recommended application rate is 3-4 Lbs per acre
(2Tbsp - 8tsp. per gallon). Moreover; commercial fungicide application rates assume that 100 gallons of spray will be needed for 1 acre of vines. Additionally, there are, on average, about 700 vines per acre. Therefore; 1 gallon of fungicide spray will cover about 7 mature vines. So, if you needed to spray 100 vines, you would need about 14.3 gallons of spray (100 vines / 7 vines per gallon of spray). If you are applying your manzate at 3 Lbs per acre, you would add .43 Lbs of Manzate (3 Lbs per acre X [14.3 gallons / {100 gal /acre}] to the 14.3 gallons of water in your sprayer. Another, easier, way to look at it is to think of your 100 vines as 1/7 (100 vines / 700 vines per acre) or 14.3% of an acre. Since you know that you would need 100 gallons of spray for 1 acre, you can easily figure that you will need 14.3 gallons (14.3% of 100 gallons) for your 100 vines. Moreover; your required Manzate will be 14.3% of the amount needed for 1 acre (3 Lbs) or (.143 x 3 Lbs = .43 Lbs). |
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